Presentation Score

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Inventions and Industry in 18th Century

Gunpowder
Gunpowder Saltpeter was known to the Chinese by the mid-1st century AD and there is strong evidence of the use of saltpeter and sulfur in various largely medicinal combinations. A Chinese alchemical text dated 492 noted saltpetre burnt with a purple flame, providing a practical and reliable means of distinguishing it from other inorganic salts, thus enabling alchemists to evaluate and compare purification techniques; the earliest Arabic and Latin accounts of saltpeter purification are dated after 1200.
The first mention of a mixture resembling gunpowder appeared in Taishang Guaizu Danjing Mijue by Qing Xuzi (c. 808); it describes mixing six parts sulfur to six parts saltpeter to one part birthwort herb (which would provide carbon). The first reference to the incendiary properties of such mixtures is the passage of the Zhenyuan miaodao yaolüe, a Taoist text tentatively dated to the mid-9th century AD: "Some have heated together sulfur, realgar and saltpeter with honey; smoke and flames result, so that their hands and faces have been burnt, and even the whole house where they were working burned down." The Chinese word for "gunpowder" is Chinese: 火药/火藥; pinyin: huŏ yào /xuou yɑʊ/, which literally means "Fire Medicine"; however this name was only came into use some centuries after the mixture's discovery. By the 9th century Taoist monks or alchemists searching for an elixir of immortality had serendipitously stumbled upon gunpowder. The Chinese wasted little time in applying gunpowder to the development of weapons, and in the centuries that followed, they produced a variety of gunpowder weapons, including flamethrowers, rockets, bombs, and land mines, before inventing guns as a projectile weapon.
The Chinese "Wu Ching Tsung Yao" (Complete Essentials from the Military Classics), written by Tseng Kung-Liang between 1040–1044, provides encyclopedia references to a variety of mixtures which included petrochemicals, as well as garlic and honey. A slow match for flame throwing mechanisms using the siphon principle and for fireworks and rockets are mentioned. The mixture formulas in this book do not contain enough salpeter to create an explosive however; being limited to at most 50% salpeter, they produce an incendiary. The Essentials was however written by a Song Dynasty court bureaucrat, and there's little evidence that it had any immediate impact on warfare; there is no mention of gunpowder use in the chronicles of the wars against the Tanguts in the eleventh century, and China was otherwise mostly at peace during this century. The first chronicled use of "fire spears" (or "fire lances") is at the siege of De'an in 1132.

Kangxi Dictionary
The Kangxi Dictionary editors, including Zhang Yushu and Chen Tingjing , partly based it on two Ming Dynasty dictionaries: the 1615 Zihui ("Character Collection") by Mei Yingzuo , and the 1627 Zhengzitong ("Correct Character Mastery") by Zhang Zilie . Since the imperial edict required that the Kangxi Dictionary be compiled within five years, a number of errors were inevitable. The Daoguang Emperor established a review board and their 1831 Zidian kaozheng ("Character Dictionary Textual Research") corrected 2,588 mistakes, mostly in quotations and citations.
The supplemented dictionary contains 47,035 character entries, plus 1,995 graphic variants, giving a total of 49,030 different characters. They are grouped under the 596 radicals and arranged by the number of additional strokes in the character. Although these 596 radicals were first used in the Zihui, due to the popularity of the Kangxi Dictionary they are known as Kangxi radicals and remain in modern usage as a method to categorize traditional Chinese characters.
The character entries give variants (if any), pronunciations in traditional fanqie spelling and in modern reading of a homophone, different meanings, and quotations from Chinese books and lexicons. The dictionary also contains rime tables with characters ordered under syllable rime classes, tones, and initial syllable onsets.
The Kangxi Dictionary is available in many forms, from old Qing Dynasty editions in block printing, to reprints in traditional Chinese bookbinding, to modern revised editions with essays in Western-style hardcover, to the digitized Internet version.
The Kangxi Dictionary is one of the Chinese dictionaries used by the Ideographic Rapporteur Group for the Unicode standard.




SiKu Quanshu

During the height of the Qing Dynasty in the 18th century CE, the Qianlong Emperor commissioned the Siku Quanshu, to demonstrate that the Qing could surpass the Ming Dynasty's 1403 Yongle Encyclopedia, which was the world's largest encyclopedia at the time.
The editorial board included 361 scholars, with Ji Yun and Lu Xixiong as chief editors. They began compilation in 1773 and completed it in 1782. The editors collected and annotated over 10,000 manuscripts from the imperial collections and other libraries, destroyed some 3,000 titles, or works, that were considered to be anti-Manchu, and selected 3,461 titles, or works, for inclusion into the Siku quanshu. They were bound in 36,381 volumes with more than 79,000 chapters , comprising about 2.3 million pages, and approximately 800 million Chinese characters.
Scribes copied every word by hand, and according to Wilkinson, "The copyists (of whom there were 3,826) were not paid in cash but rewarded with official posts after they had transcribed a given number of words within a set time." Four copies for the emperor were placed in specially constructed libraries in the Forbidden City, Old Summer Palace, Shenyang, and Wenjin Chamber, Chengde. Three additional copies for the public were deposited in Siku quanshu libraries in Hangzhou, Zhenjiang, and Yangzhou. All seven libraries also received copies of the 1725 imperial encyclopedia Gujin tushu jicheng.
The Siku quanshu copies kept in Zhenjiang and Yangzhou were destroyed during the Taiping Rebellion. In 1860 during the Second Opium War an Anglo-French expedition force burned most of the copy kept at the Old Summer Palace. The four remaining copies suffered some damage during World War II. Today, the four remaining copies are kept at the National Library of China in Beijing, the National Palace Museum in Taipei, the Gansu Library in Lanzhou, and the Zhejiang Library in Hangzhou.
Timeline of the collection of booksIn the first month of the 37th year of the Qianlong Emperor, people were requested by Imperial Decree to hand in their private book collections for use in the compilation of the Siku Quanshu. However, only a small number of people actually did so at this time, partly in fear of possible persecutions due to Literary Inquisition such as in the case of Treason by the Book.In October of the same year, seeing that only a limited number of people actually handed in books, the Qianlong Emperor issued furthered Imperial Decrees stressing that Books would be returned to their owners once the compilation was finished. Book owners would not be persecuted even if their books contained Bad words. Less than three months after the issue of this decree four to five thousand different books were handed in.Apart from reassuring the book owners that they would be free from persecution, the Qianlong Emperor also made promises and gave rewards to Chinese book owners, such as that he would perform personal calligraphy on their books. By this time 10,000 books had been handed in.

The music in 20th Century

Chinese music in 20th century was a rapid development age. Between 1900-1950, at this time, most music creation were aound the points about patriotic. Because the author hope that through music to arouse the composer of the people of the nation feeling. After 1950, the country music turns to be the main popular music in China. Author want use this kind of music to let people more hard work and help our country develop faster. In 1980s, the foreign pop music and cantonese songs began to introduced into China, but the Chinese Nations songs in the older crowd is still the mainstream songs. But the foreign pop music and the cantonese songs started to effect the Chinese young people.

1949-1979
On Beijing's Golden Mountain
Singer: Caizhuo Madan
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2a1gekaTg8&feature=fvst

1980s
Sweet honey
Singer: Deng Lijun
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ppccxy4YyKg

1990s
Haikuotiankong
Band: Beyond
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RkwXm7HLA1k

Blessing
Singer: Zhang Xueyou
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MXMMSL6EZTk

2000s
Stranded
Singer: Zhou Jielun
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BbsYJLwAhio

Above the moon
Band: Phoenix Legend
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=nQd_ytSuvXg

The rule and government in 18th century

In 18^th Century, China was in Qing Dynasty. Qing Dynasty was established by Nvzhen nationality combined the feudal dynasty. It was the second dynasty which was established by minority rule after Yuan Dynasty in Chinese history. Qing Dynasty’s military system include the eight banners system, six department system, South study, military mission office, Han army camp. The eight banners was composed by the royal family, in the beginning of 18^th century, they had high rights. The six departments system has collectors, household, ritual, soldier, punishment and work. The boss of any departments called Shangshu, the vice boss called Shilang. The Qing dynasty officials were rated ‘9 Pin, 18 level’. In Qing Dynasty, it had different policies for the different nations. The Qing Dynasty control the literature was very strict, it had the Word Law. Because in 18^th century, lots of Han Chinese use the words to proclaim ‘Against Qing Recovery Ming’. The Qing Dynasty had imperial examination to select officials.

Qing China reached its largest extent during the 18^th century, when it ruled China proper as well as Manchuria, Inner Mongolia, Outer Mongolia and Tibet, at approximately 13 million square km in size. There were originally 18 provinces, all of which in China proper, but later this number was increased to 22.

The original provinces of Qing China was based on the fifteen administrative units set up by the Ming Dynasty, though some minor reforms took place to become the eighteen provinces (for example, Huguang was split into Hubei and Hunan provinces). Adopted the model used by the Yuan and Ming dynasties, the Qing provincial bureaucracy also contained three commissions: one civil, one military, and one for surveillance. Each province was governed by a civil official called xunfu and a military official called tidu . Below the level of the province were prefectures operating under a prefect, followed by subprefectures under a subprefect. The lowest unit was the county, overseen by a magistrate. These areas under the administration of the eighteen provinces are also known as "China proper". The position of viceroy or governor-general was the highest rank in the provincial administration. There were eight regional viceroys in China proper, each usually took charge of two or three provinces. The Viceroy of Zhili, who was responsible for the area surrounding the capital Beijing, is usually considered as the most honorable and powerful viceroy among the eight.

The low class of ordinary people was divided into two categories- one of them, the good "commoner" people, the other "mean" people. Prostitutes, entertainers, and low lovel government emplyeers were the people in the mean class. the Mean people were heavily discrimated against, forbidden to take the Imperial Examination, and mean and good people could not marry each other.

The development of the Qing military system can be divided into two broad periods separated by the Taiping Rebellion. The early Qing military was rooted in the Eight Banners first developed by Nurhachi as a way to organize Jurchen society beyond petty clan affiliations. There are eight banners in all, differentiated by colours. The banners in their order of precedence were as follows: yellow, bordered yellow (i.e. yellow banner with red border), white, red, bordered white, bordered red, blue, and bordered blue. The yellow, bordered yellow, and white banners were collectively known as the "Upper Three Banners"and were under the direct command of the emperor. Only Manchus belonging to the Upper Three Banners, and selected Han Chinese who had passed the highest level of martial exams were qualified to serve as the emperor's personal bodyguards. The remaining Banners were known as "The Lower Five Banners" and were commanded by hereditary Manchu princes descended from Nurhachi's immediate family, known informally as the "Iron Cap Princes" Together they formed the ruling council of the Manchu nation as well as high command of the army.

The Qing Dynasty inherited many important institutions from the preceding Ming Dynasty. The formal structure of the Qing government centered on the Emperor as the absolute ruler, who presided over six Boards (Ministries) each headed by two presidents and assisted by four vice presidents。In contrast to the Ming system, however, Qing ethnic policy dictated that appointments were split between Manchu noblemen and Han officials who had passed the highest levels of the state examinations. The Grand Secretariat , which had been an important policy-making body under the Ming Dynasty, lost its importance during the Qing Dynasty and evolved into an imperial chancery. The institutions which had been inherited from the Ming Dynasty formed the core of the Qing "outer court," which handled routine matters and was located in the southern part of the Forbidden City.

In order not to let the routine administration take over the running of the empire, the Qing emperors made sure that all important matters were decided in the "Inner Court," which was dominated by the imperial family and Manchu nobility and which was located in the northern part of the Forbidden City. The core institution of the inner court was the Grand Council It emerged in the 1720s under the reign of the Yongzheng Emperor as a body charged with handling Qing military campaigns against the Dzungar Mongols, but it soon took over other military and administrative duties and served to centralize authority under the crown.[43] The Grand Councillors served as a sort of privy council to the emperor.

Poets and writers in 20th century

In 1900-1949, China was in a wars age. In that time, there were large amounts of patriotic writers emerged. In China, there were two important parts of literati, rural style and reality style. For rural style, their article tends to ordinary life. For reality style, their article had deeper meaning, some of them express strong patriotism. In that war age, many articles were used to wake up the nation consciousness. In 1950-2000, this is a Chinese social development period, there were a lot of literary youth appeared. In the development of the society usually appeared lots of problems, some articles through some things to insinuation those problems. Chinese writer has a different habits from European and American writers, their many articles do not like show their views directly, they like to use something to allude to, or through some depth to let people go to guess.

Some famous writes in 20^th century in China

Zhou Shuren[Lu Xun] (1881-1936)

Shaoxin, Zhejiang

His works including essays, short stories, reviews, prose and translation work. He produced profound effect for the Chinese literature after the ‘May 4^th revolution’. President Mao evaluation he was the great proletarian writer, thinker and revolutionaries, he was Chinese cultural revolution of the creation. Lu Xun wrote 6 million words for his works.

Famous works:

Lao She(1899-1966)

Beijing

He was modern Chinese famous novelist, writers and dramatist. Lao She’s life usually devote themselves to the job, he was the model worker in literary and art circles.

Famous works:

Guo Moruo(1892-1978)

Leshan, Sichuan

He was Chinese famous proletarian writer, poet, dramatist, archaeologists, thinkers, Chinese scientists, historians, calligrapher, scholars and famous revolutionary. He was founder of the new poetry in China. He was the revolutionary culture recognized leader after Lu Xun.

Famous works: < Heavenly>

Li Yaotang[Ba Jin](1904-2005)

Cheng Du, Sichuan

He was modern writers, during, translator. At the same time also was known as the ‘May 4^th new culture movement’ the most influential writer. He was an outstanding Chinese literature masters in 20^th century, a master of contemporary literary world.

Famous works: < The story of the Hero>

Some other famous writes: Lin Yutang, Shen Congwen, Xiao Hong, Hu Shi, Zou Taofen, Mao Dun, Xu Zhimo, Zhu Ziqing, Wen Yiduo, Bing Xin, Zhou Libo, etc.